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Nature and Spirituality

The presence of natural elements in human spiritual beliefs has always been of outmost importance, no matter the name that society gives to those beliefs. But what is its exact role? Is nature a mediator between God and man, just a way to discover divinity, or is it an entity in itself? The purpose of this essay is to offer an attempt at answering these questions, by analyzing Christian beliefs in relation to Native American spirituality. There are many aspects which can bring together or separate the Christian from the “Heathen”, but our research will focus mainly on knowledge and the extent to which it can be obtained by interaction with nature. From this respect, differences arise between the idea of nature as a source of knowledge and the idea of nature as an energy complex to which one belongs. The two trends of thought can, thus, influence not only our relationship with God, but also our perspective on life and our role in the world. Firstly, a short description of Christian and Native American beliefs should be made. While both religions accept the existence of God, differences arise in man’s relationship with the Almighty. On the one hand, Christian religion teaches that God created the Earth and the vegetal and animal world and put man in charge of his creation. This and all that happens next are included in the Bible, a book which Francis Bacon believes to reveal the will of God. There are many things which can be inferred from this: that man and nature are two different parts of this world (the first being superior to the other), that Christianity is a religion for the civilized people (due to the existence of the Bible, viewed as a written testimony of “historical” facts) and that man, as a superior being, has both a right to use nature in order to survive, and a responsibility towards it (that comes as a result of governing).

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The purpose of this essay is to analyze the relationship between man and the divine, by focusing upon the intense social commentary shaping Mark Twain’s novella, “The Mysterious Stranger”. This task can be easily accomplished when focusing our attention on key fragments in the text and comparing them with normal Christian belief. The story is a fairly simple one, centred around an Austrian village in the Middle Ages, where three boys spend their days playing and listening to stories about witches, wizards, angels, devils, ghosts and other fantastic happenings, until they really meet an angel, paradoxically called Satan. He introduces himself as the first Satan’s nephew and becomes the three boys’ companion, travelling with them all over the world, performing magical acts and interfering in the lives of the villagers (apparently to change their lives for the better). This is where the discrepancy occurs, because what started as good fortune (like finding money when one is in need) soon turns into bad, as people’s true natures show themselves and the angel keeps interfering (father Peter is imprisoned because he is accused of stealing the money, his daughter Marget is isolated in the village; more and more innocent people are accused of witchcraft and the real supernatural force is never identified, although he is right under their noses). Moreover, through his actions, the angel tries to explain his philosophy to the young boys (mainly to the first person narrator), but every time, although his words are understood, the boys feel insulted and distrustful, concerned about the fact that Satan knows how to help people only by killing them or making them permanently crazy. What they don’t understand is the true difference between angels and humans, that Satan poetically renders as the difference between an elephant and a red spider:…^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

“Always do the opposite of what is expected of you”;

Hypocrisy and Mimetic Desire in Stendhal’s Novel The Red and the Black

In Stendhal’s novel The Red and the Black, variations of the word ‘hypocrisy’ appear twenty-nine times.  ‘Hypocrisy’ comes from the Greek word hypokrisis, originally meaning the action of acting on a stage, playing a part. In most cases the word is used in reference to the protagonist, Julien Sorel, and as well as in his own thoughts about himself.  Julien views his hypocrisy as a positive attribute that he can use as a means to get ahead in the world.  By concealing his true intentions and thoughts behind a mask of false virtue, he is able to advance beyond his humble provincial origins.  The society in which he operates is itself hypocritical in nature; while virtue is prized publicly, it is only without morals that a person can climb the social ladder to success.  This is evident in the characters that have attained success, such as M. de Renal and M. de Valenod.  The former is obsessed with a ‘mania for ownership’ and a mimicry of higher ranking nobles. The latter siphons off the money meant for the poor house to purchase ostentatious decorations and expensive foods that he enjoys while hearing the muffled sounds of the hungry denizens on the other side of his wall.  Their hypocrisies, as well as the myriad of hypocrisies practiced by other characters, serve as an example for Julien in his quest to attain wealth and glory.  This strategy serves him well until the moment of his trial, when Julien finally takes off his mask and speaks out honestly against the injustices the lower class faces at the hands of the aristocracy.  Ironically, it is this honesty and not the hypocrisy that proves to be fatal.  Stendhal’s novel explores the nature of hypocrisy in individuals and society, coming to the conclusion that to survive in a world based on rigidly prescribed roles and rules, it is necessary for an individual to become a hypocrite.